Fronteras en el tiempo y el espacio: Las “plazas menores” de soberanía
Barra lateral del artículo
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
Detalles del artículo
Las/los autoras/es que publiquen en esta revista aceptan las siguientes condiciones:
- Las/los autoras/es conservan los derechos de autor y ceden a la revista Frontera Norte (RFN) el derecho de la primera publicación, mediante el registro de los textos con la licencia de Creative Commons Atribución-No comercial-Sin derivar 4.0 internacional (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), que permite a terceros utilizar lo publicado siempre que mencionen la autoría del trabajo y a la primera publicación en esta revista.
- Autorizan que su artículo y todos los materiales incluidos en él sean reproducidos, publicados, traducidos, comunicados y transmitidos públicamente en cualquier forma o medio; así como efectuar su distribución al público en el número de ejemplares que se requieran y su comunicación pública, en cada una de sus modalidades, incluida su puesta a disposición del público a través de medios electrónicos o de cualquier otra tecnología, para fines exclusivamente científicos, culturales, de difusión y sin fines comerciales.
- Los autores/as pueden realizar otros acuerdos contractuales independientes y adicionales para la distribución no exclusiva de la versión del artículo publicado en esta revista (por ejemplo: incluirlo en un repositorio institucional, página web personal; o bien publicarlo en un libro) siempre que sea sin fines comerciales e indiquen claramente que el trabajo se publicó por primera vez en Frontera Norte (RFN), [agregando la ficha bibliográfica correspondiente: Autor/es. (año). Título del artículo. Frontera Norte, volumen (número), pp. doi: xxxx ].
Para ello, los autores deben remitir el formato de carta-cesión de la propiedad de los derechos de la primera publicación debidamente llenado y firmado. Este documento debe cargarse en formato PDF en archivos complementarios dentro de la plataforma OJS.
Este obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Atribución-No comercial-Sin derivar 4.0 internacional (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Citas
Alonso Acero, Beatriz, 2003, Orán y Mazalquivir en la política norteafricana de España (1589-1639), Doctoral dissertation supervised by Dr. José Alcalá-Zamora y Queipo de Llano, Madrid, Universidad Complutense.
Anderson, James, 1995, "The exaggerated death of the nation-state", In J. Anderson, C. Brook, & A. Cochrane, edits., A Global World?, Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 66-86.
Arqués, Enrique, 1966, Las adelantadas de España: Las plazas españolas del litoral africano del Mediterráneo, Madrid, CSIC, Instituto de Estudios Africanos.
Cairo Carou, Heriberto, 2001, "Territorialidad y fronteras del estado nación: las condiciones de la política en un mundo fragmentado", Revista Política y Sociedad, No. 36, pp. 29-38.
Cajal, Máximo, 2003, Ceuta, Melilla, Olivenza y Gibraltar ¿Donde acaba España?, Madrid, Siglo XXI Editores de España.
Calderón, Francisco José [ebook], 2008, Fronteras, iedentidad, conflicto e interacción. Los Presidios Españoles en el Norte Africano, author's edition, available at <http://www.eumed.net/libros/2008c/433/index.htm>, last accesed on September, 2012.
Calderón, Francisco José, 2010, "La Raya luso-hispana, una frontera en transición", Proceedings of International Algarve-Alentejo Andalucía Transborder Cooperation, Congress CBC, Huelva, Publications Service of the Universidad de Huelva, pp. 41-54.
Calderón, Francisco José, 2011, "Presidios, mestizajes y fronteras: referencia entre la Nueva España y la Vieja África", Revista Tecsistecatl, vol. 3, núm. 11, December, available at <http://www.eumed.net/rev/tecsistecatl/n11/fjcv.html>, last accesed on September, 2012.
Carcaño Mas, Francisco et al., 1991, Melilla, rifeñerias: Las plazas menores de Africa, Melilla, Fundación Municipal Sociocultural,/Ayuntamiento de Melilla.
Carling, Jørgen, 2007a, "Migration control and migrant fatalities at the Spanish-African borders", International Migration Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 316-343.
Carling, Jørgen, 2007b, "The Merits and Limitations of Spain's High-Tech Border Control", Migration Information Source, Washington, DC, Migration Policy Institute, available at <http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cffm?id=605>, last accessed on 2 September, 2012.
Cembrero, Ignacio, 2012a, "Marruecos protesta por la presencia de guardias civiles en Chafarinas", in El País, section "Política", July 12, available at <http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/07/12/actualidad/1342095357_948269.html>, last accessed on September 5, 2012.
Cembrero, Ignacio, 2012b, "Peñones e islotes: la nueva entrada de los 'sin papeles' en España", in El País, section "Política", August 25, available at <http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/08/25/actualidad/1345911736_115632.html>, last accessed on September 5, 2012.
Del Valle Gálvez, Alejandro, 2011, "Ceuta, Melilla, Chafarinas, Vélez y Alhucemas: tomar la iniciativa", Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid, Fundación Real Instituto Elcano, available at <http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_es/zonas_es/mediterraneo+y+mundo+arabe/ari163-2011>, last accessed on September 7, 2012.
Donnan, Hastings and Thomas Wilson, 1999, Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State, Oxford, Berg.
Donnet y Pareja, Baldomero, 1912, "Los puertos de España en África", Revista de Obras Publicas, Madrid, publicación técnica del cuerpo de ingenieros de caminos, canales y puertos, year 60, No. 1931, pp. 465- 469, available at <http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdff/publico/1912/1912_tomoI_1931_01.pdf>, last accessed on September 7, 2012.
Driessen, Henk, 1992, On the Spanish Moroccan frontier: A study in ritual, power, and ethnicity, New York/Oxford, Berg.
Driessen, Henk, 1996, "At the edge of Europe: crossing and marking the Mediterranean divide", in L. O'Dowd, & T. Wilson, edits., Borders, nations and states, Aldershot, Hampshire, UK, Avebury Publishers, pp. 179-198.
EFE, 2012a, "Cuatro activistas marroquíes detenidos por tratar de 'ocupar' el Peñón de Vélez", in 20minutos.es, August 29, available at <http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/1573714/0/activistas-marroquies/ocupar/penon-de-velez/>, last accessed on September 1, 2012.
EFE, 2012b, "Islas y peñones el nuevo frente de la inmigración en España", en La Razón, section "Asuntos Sociales", September 2, available at <http://www.larazon.es/noticia/6488-islas-y-penones-el-nuevo-frente-de-la-inmigracion-en-espana>, last accessed on September 3, 2012.
Emig, Christian et al., 1999, "The occurrence in the Chafarinas Islands (S.E. Alboran Sea, western Mediterranean) of four species of Phoronida (Lophophorata) and their distribution in the north-eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean areas", Cahiers Biologie Marine, Roscoff, Station Biologique de Roscoff, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 129-133.
European Commission, 2003, "Paving the way for a New Neighbourhood Instrument", COM(2003) 393 final, Brussels, Commision of the European Communities, July 1, available at
Ferrer-Gallardo, Xavier, 2007, "Acrobacias fronterizas en Ceuta y Melilla. Explorando la gestión de los perímetros terrestres de la Unión Europea en el continente africano", Documentos de Análisis Geográfico, No. 51, 2008, pp. 129-149.
Ferrer-Gallardo, Xavier, 2008, "The Spanish-Moroccan border complex: Processes of geopolitical, functional and symbolic rebordering", Political Geography, No. 27, pp. 301-321, available at <http://geografia.uab.es/migracions/cas/publicacions%20i%20documents/Ferrer,%20The%20spanish-moroccan%20border%20complex.pdff>, last accessed on September 5, 2012.
García Arenal, Mercedes and Miguel Ángel DE BUNES, 1992, Los españoles y el Norte de África, Siglos XV-XVIII, Madrid, Mapffre.
Gil Ruiz, Severiano y Miguel Gómez Bernardi, 1996, Melilla: Apuntes de su historia militar, Melilla, Ediciones V Centenario.
Gold, Peter, 1999, "Immigration into the European Union via the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla: a reflection of regional economic disparities", Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 23-36.
Gonzálo, Beatriz, 2012, "Hacer las islas", Tierra, Boletín informativo del Ejército español, Year 27, No. 198, May 24, pp. 8-9.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), 2012, Censos Oficiales de la Población de 1877-1970, Fondo Documental del Instituto Nacional de Estadística, available at <http://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/libros.do?tntp=71807>, last accesed on September, 2012.
Llorente de Pedro, Pedro Alejo, 2008, "La pena de presidio en las plazas menores africanas hasta la Constitución Española de 1812", Anuario de Derecho Penal y Ciencias Penales, España, Boletín Oficial del Estado, No. LXI, January 2008, pp. 265-330.
Lois, Maria and Heriberto Cairo, 2011, "Introducción. Desffronterización y re-fronterización en la Península Ibérica", Geopolítica(s), Revista de estudios sobre espacio y poder, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 11-22. Monográfico: "Las Fronteras Ibéricas".
Lourido Díaz, Ramón, 1996, "Españoles en el Norte de África en la Edad Moderna", in B. López García, coord., Atlas de la inmigración magrebí en España, Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, pp. 22-26.
Mariñas Otero, Eugenio, 1998, "Las Plazas menores de soberanía española en África", Militaria, Madrid, UCM Publication Services, No. 12.
Mir Berlanga, Francisco, 1980, "Las Islas Chafarinas. Historia del archipiélago de Chafarinas", Jábega, Málaga, Ed. de la Diputación de Málaga, No. 32, pp. 51-54.
Moorhead, Max, 1975, The Presidio, Bastion of the Spanish Borderlands, United States, University of Oklahoma.
Newman, David, 2006, "The lines that continue to separate us: Borders in our borderless world", Progress in Human Geography, SAGE Publications, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 1-19.
Newman, David and Anssi Paasi, 1998, "Fences and neighbours in the postmodern world: boundary narratives in political geography", Progress in Human Geography, SAGE Publications, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 186-207.
O'Dowd, Liam, 2010, "From a 'borderless world' to a 'world of borders': Bringing history back in", Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, Vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 1031-1050.
Ohmae, Keinichi, 1990, The Borderless World, London, Collins.
Pastor Garrigues, Francisco Manuel, 2006, España y la apertura de la cuestión marroquí(1897-1904), Doctoral dissertation. Morales Lezcano, V. (Dir.) Universidad de Valencia, Departamento de Historia Contemporánea, available at <http://rodrigo.uv.es/bitstream/handle/10550/15215/pastor.pdf?sequence=1>, last acccessed on September 7, 2012.
Pezzi, Rafael, 1893, Los presidios menores de áfrica y la influencia española en el Rif, Madrid, Fortanet.
Powell, Philip Wayne, 1982, "Genesis of the Frontier Presidio in North America", The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 125-141.
Quirós Linares, Francisco, 1998, "Los Peñones de Vélez de la Gomera y Alhucemas y las Islas Chafarinas", Ería, Oviedo, Universidad de Oviedo, No. 45, pp. 54-66.
Sánchez Doncel, Gregorio, 1991, Presencia en España en Orán (1509-1792), Toledo, Estudios Teológicos de San Ildefonso.
Sánchez, Paqui, 2012, "La Guardia Civil blindará las Chafarinas contra el tráfico de drogas e inmigrantes", in El Mundo, section "Melilla", September 7, available at <http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/07/09/espana/1341837758.html>, last accessed on September 8, 2012.
Sanz Sampelayo, Juan Félix, 1978, "Los presidios españoles del Norte de África y su aprovisionamiento de víveres a fines del siglo XVIII", Anuario de Historia Contemporánea, No. 4-5, pp. 101-126.
Saruel Hernández, Fernando, 2008, "El Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera en un manuscrito de 1845", Akros: La revista del museo, No. 7, pp. 49-52.
Tena Medialdea, José [dissertation], 1996, Faunística y ecología de los anélidos poliquetos de los fondos de sustrato duro del Archipiélago de las Chafarinas (S.W. Mar de Alborán), Universidad de Valencia.
Ubieto, Antonio et al., 1970, Introducción a la historia de España, Barcelona, Teide.
Van Houtum, Henk and Anke Strüver, 2002, "Borders, Strangers, Doors and Bridges", Spaces & Polity, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 141-146.
Velasco, Juan Carlos, 2007, "Fronteras e inmigración: la sima entre España y África", Bottup.com, available at <http://bottup.com/200708151649/Ciudadania/la-frontera-entre-espa-marruecos-es-una-de-las-mradicales-del-mundo.html#ixzz24ghVGV9U> .
Vilar, Juan Bautista and Ramón Lourido, 1994, España y el Magreb. Siglos XVII-XVIII, Madrid, Mapfre.
Villora Moreno, Santiago [dissertation], 1993, "Heterogeneidad del ambiente intersticial y biodiversidad de la meiofauna: el meiobentos de las islas Chafarinas", Universidad de Valencia.
Vives González, Luna, 2011, "White Europe: an alternative reading of the Southern EU border", Geopolítica(s), Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 51-70.
Notas
The term "border" implies the control of a concrete territorial zone by a specific, unique human community. By separating it from adjacent communities, this limit produces a division between "us" and "them," the cornerstone of both collective identity and the construction of a nation.
In fact, the etymology of the term "border" ("frontera" in Spanish) is "front," in other words, the front that designated the zone of contact and separation from an enemy even though it is a fluctuating line that evolves as a function of the correlation of forces between parts.
In the European Union, the rethinking of the border has reconfigured borders (between member countries) as spaces of interaction-connection between adjacent territories and thresholds of flows entering or leaving the territory (European Commission, 2003). It consists of a permeable vision of boundaries, oriented towards the organization of transborder flows, whether mercantile, commercial, human, touristic or migratory.
Cities administratively classified as Autonomous Cities. They are medium-sized border cities with a small area: Ceuta (19.4 km2) and Melilla (13.4 km2).
The Chafarina Island archipelago consists of three islands: Isla del Congreso (4.5 knr*), Isla Isabel II, (2 km2) and Islote Rey Francisco (0.6 km2).
The microarchipelago of Alhucemas comprises "Peñón de Alhucemas" (0,015 km2), "Isla de Tierra" (0.017 km2) and "Isla de Mar" (0.014 km2).
Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (2.2 km2) was originally an island but in the wake of a powerful earthquake in 1934, became a sort of peninsula and is currently linked to the shore by a small, sandy isthmus.
In order for a territory to be regarded as an enclave, it must be completely surrounded by the territory of another state. In other words, it must be physically "locked" inside it. This situation does not occur in our case, since the Major Sovereign Territories are open to the sea while the Minor Sovereign Territories are surrounded by the sea. An alternative terminology would be "exclave" or "semi-enclave" (Ferrer, 2007). Another issue is the fact that widespread use of the term means it has been broadly accepted as a common code.
Such as the problem of the control of the Straits of Gibraltar or the fight against extremist Islam, which transcend the purely bilateral sphere.
As with all types of border problems and friction that lead to the mutual withdrawal of ambassadors, a common tactic during this period (2000-2011).
The Moroccan Constitution (2011) calls for the authentic frontiers of the "Great Morocco," a position that led to a permanent attitude of territorial demands targeting Spain.
This action elicited a Spanish military reaction, which involved capturing Moroccan military men by armed forces. This war led to the virtual severing of diplomatic (although not economic) relations between Spain and Morocco.
A stage of enormous danger for the southwest peninsular shore, which suffered razzias and raids by Berber pirates and the Turkish expansion in the Mediterranean. Circumstances which, linked to the fear of a large-scale Moorish rebellion in the peninsular south and Levant created an enormous sense of insecurity in the emerging Castillian-Aragonese Kingdom, leading to the need to guarantee their territorial security and integrity.
These operations led to the capture of Melilla (1497), Mazalquivir (1505), the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508), Orán (1509), Bujía, Trípoli and the subjection of Algiers (1510). After various North African counterattacks, the African border around the enclaves of Oran-Mazalquivir, Melilla, Vélez del Gomera and Ceuta (subsequently a Portuguese possession until 1640); the Alhucemas Islands were subsequently incorporated into this peculiar "system." (1673). The double fort of Oran-Mazalquivir was abandoned in 1792. Meanwhile, the Chafarinas Islands were incorporated in 1847. This led to the set of "North African forts" as we know them today: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Alhucemas Islands and Chafarinas Islands.
The term "presidio" can be confusing, since in modern-day Spanish, the term is equivalent to "prison" or "correctional center" whereas in fact it means "fort" or "bastion" located on the borders of the territory.
A distinction must be made between exiles, dedicated to the service of arms and convicts dedicated to the construction and maintenance of the forts.
Since the inhabitants of Melilla used the islands as an area for leisure and recreation and catching shellfish. The Chafarinas Islands were used as quarries (for extracting stone for construction work or as a port of refuge when, in the event of a storm, it proved difficult to berth in the port of Melilla.)
These asymmetrical treaties were very important since their stipulations established, on the other hand, the current delimitation of the Spanish-Moroccan border and on the other, they created a commercial "open door" regime, similar to that currently enjoyed by England in the area, albeit more restrictive, enabling Spanish products to gain free access to the Moroccan market, as a result of extremely low tariffs.
Established by the Ministry of Finance Law on May 18, 1863.
A very different role from that of the "African border." The old presidios would no longer be regarded simply as "stockades" designed to "curb, contain and control" the Berbers and Turks or to house prisoners. Henceforth, their mission would be to open up the North African market to Spanish exports.
Following Eugenio Mariñas (1998), El Peñón de Alhucemas was the only minor fort to engage in intense trade with the North African population in the adjoining area, the kingdom of Nekor. The flourishing trade in the 17th and 18th centuries focused on products such as textiles, salted food, oil and rice among others, from the Peninsula with products from the area such as pickles, wax, raisins, and almonds, creating an abundance of civil population.
At the same time, Ceuta Prison was finally closed down in 1911.
Vélez, Alhucemas and Chafarinas experienced a "civil-urban expansion" of the Tertiary: in Vélez de la Gomera, there would be shops, businesses and bars. In Alhucemas, branches of banks, boat consignment offices and even a Recreation Circle were opened up. Chafarinas, a "white town" par excellence (with businesses, a theater and a casino) developed as a result of construction work, fishing and trade, etc.
Municipal administration of the Minor Sovereign Territories was undertaken by a combined civic-military organization, called an "Excise Board," comprising civilians and military men, which served as a Town Hall and of which the Military Commander of the area was President (Mayor).
Taken from the state population censuses of the period from 1877 to 1970.
In Peñón de Velez, the border cabila residents only visited the fortress in times of relative peace, usually every month, setting up a small market offering cattle, poultry, eggs, fruit and vegetables that were purchased by the inhabitants of Peñón.
Market prices, set by the Military Governor of Peñón de Vélez, remained constant. Moreover, mechandise and food were divided up among the inhabitants of The Rock by peculiar system of distribution, as a function of categories, which led to their fair distribution as a function of the volume to be divided up.
The famous Winchester and Remington automatic rifles, whose proliferation among the locals led to the swift loss of authority of the Majzén over the local cabilas.
According to Pastor (2006:298-299), Spanish authorities alleged that since they were free ports: "Military authorities could not impose any restrictions or constraints on the boats that came into them every week to unload legally consigned merchandise destined for established tradesmen or individuals in the areas. At the same time, the Army was not authorized to intervene in the free trade undertaken in the garrisons."
The point was to develop transport infrastructure (through the construction of highways, bridges, roads, railroads, ports, aerodromes, etc.), urban development (construction of cities and urban nuclei), communications infrastructure (telephony, telegraphy networks and postal service) and basic health and education facilities, thitherto non-existent in the area. As for productive activities, mining production expanded significantly. Likewise, agrarian and livestock production increased steadily until the end of the Protectorate (1958).
The islands and the surrounding marine rectangle providing a sanctuary for wildlife, were of unquestionable environmental value. The world's second largest colony of the Audouin Seagull (Larus Audouinii) nest in Chafarinas, with over 2000 breeding pairs). The islands are also home to a large contingent of the rare Cory's Shearwater. These islands also contain a significant breeding nucleus of the rare osprey. Lastly, it contains marine invertebrates in danger of extinction, such as the limpet (Patella ferruginea).
The incorporation of Chafarinas into the Network of European Natural Spaces, such as LIC, with a Maritime-Land area of 511 ha, is due, according to the Habitats guidelines (EU) (1991) to the existence in the island enclave of types of habitat of community interest together with contextual flora and fauna of extraordinary value, whose conservation requires the designation of Special Conservation Zones.
A double metal fence (triple on the Melilla border perimeter) between 3.5 and 6 m high equipped with high-tech surveillance equipment (infrared cameras, thermal sensors, etc.) and of course the ubiquitous barbed wire.
On land, the armor-plating of the border perimeter has heightened the despair of thousands of Sub-Saharans who gather near the border, waiting for an opportunity to attack the fences. This occurs periodically, resulting in death and injury. In the case of the sea, the introduction of SIVE has deviated the migratory traffic in the Straits of Gibraltar, driving smaller vessels (known as pateras) into uncontrolled alternative routes, considerably increasing the danger of the migratory route.
This islet can be reached by swimmers or even walkers at low tide, since it is 10-30 meters from the Moroccan shore.